Chapter 6 : General Problems in Cross-Cultural Methodology

• Trans-cultural equivalence: refers to the sameness of concepts and meanings of certain things, events, or conditions across cultures.
• However, we do not have many concepts, nor meanings which are considered to universally shared.
• Cross-cultural methodology carries this problem.  – As per the example, of what is the Korean equivalent of what Western psychologist know as “Depression?” Medical anthropologist explains, that different cultures assume the problem of depressive disorders in different ways.
• There is a way to separate what is shared and what is not shared by all cultures; this is known as Etic vs. Emic categories.
• Etic- is what is shared by all cultures. Outsiders view/assumptions of a culture.  Is more readily accessible and comprehensible.
• Emic- is what is not shared by all cultures, but is unique to a specific culture. Insiders view of a culture.
• The etic-emic discrepancy is thus a widespread problem within the entire process of cross-cultural research and will be the base of this chapter which discusses how to better the following topics: Translation of research instruments,  Sampling procedure, Interaction between the researcher and the subject, Analysis of data,  Interpretation of findings.

Problems of Translation:

•  First obstacle to overcome in cross cultural research, will be the language barrier.  This results in research instruments, such as, paper-and-pencil tests, projective tests, personality inventory questionnaires, diagnostic interview schedules, having to be translated.
• If an efficient, and trustworthy interpreter is not provided, the researcher must know the language of the people he/she is observing.
• To, disregard this problem with translation, there is back-translation, which has one bilingual translating from the source to the target language (word for word translation), and another bilingual blindly translating back to the source.
• There have also been guidelines and procedures listed for developing translatable research instruments this includes the following;

1. Use short simple sentences of less than sixteen words.
2. Employ the active rather than the passive voice.
3. Repeat nouns instead of using pronouns.
4. Avoid metaphors and colloquialisms.
5. Avoid subjunctives, such as, “would,” “could,” “should.”
6. Add sentences to provide context for key ideas.
7. Avoid adverbs and prepositions telling “where,” “when.”
8. Avoid possessive forms where possible.
9. Use specific terms rather than general terms.
10. Avoid words indicating vagueness regarding events, or things. “Probably,” “Maybe,” “Perhaps.”
11. Use wording familiar to the translator, researchers should sit down with translators and go over the materials to be translated. 
12. Avoid sentences with two different verbs.

Interactional Problems:

• The interpersonal interaction between the researcher and the subject is found to be another major problem in cross-cultural research.
•  The effect of interactional problems is magnified in cross-cultural research due to the differences in language, and customs, beliefs, and race.
• Nonresponse rates in in cross-cultural research are significantly higher than in single-culture research.

5 biases resulting in cross-cultural research vulnerability:

1. Rudeness bias- refers to the insensitivity and ignorance of researchers.
2. The sucker bias- means the respondents game playing with the researcher in some cultures by giving.
3. The “I-can-answer-any-question” bias- refers to the deep-seated belief among respondents that no question should go unanswered.
4. The social desirability or courtesy bias- occurs in some cultures. The respondents tend to give answers which they think could please or satisfy the interviewer.  
5. The hidden promises bias- occurs when respondents try to rediscover who the research really represents and what the researcher is really trying to learn.

Sampling Problems:

• Since cross-cultural research is comparative in nature, sampling is found to be more problematic in a cross-cultural research, as oppose, to single-cultural.
• Random Sampling: Probability sampling in which every unit in the total sampling frame has an equal chance to be selected.
• In most social research, random sampling is the best sampling strategy.
• However, in cross-cultural research this strategy is impossible, this is, due to the fact, that adequate sampling frames are not obtainable in many non-western societies.
• Galton’s Problem- refers to the problems of comparing cultures or units of cultures which are not historically independent from each other.
• Depending on the nature of the research, various nonrandom sampling strategies may be employed, such as, purposive or expedient sampling.
• Each sampling strategy has therefore its own advantages and limitations, depending on the nature and purpose of research, availability of resources, and the characteristics of research subjects.

Emotional Stress:

• Culture Shock: the emotional stresses experienced by strangers in a strange environment.
• Culture shock became a popular term in the 1960’s when the Peace Corps movement was in full force.
• Culture shock was symptoms which include: Anxiety reactions, Excessive concerns about cleanliness; Feelings of helplessness; Anger; Frustration; Terrible longing to be back home;  Hostility against host country and its people;
• Oberg advanced a stage-model of culture shock this is as follows;
• 1. “Honeymoon stage”- the strangers (visitors) are fascinated by the new environment. May last from a few days or weeks, to six months.
• 2. The crisis stage- develop hostile aggressive attitude towards the host because of day to day adjustment difficulties; problems of language, housing, transportation, school, shopping, etc.
• 3. The adjustment stage- mixture of continuity and resolution of adjustment difficulties. Learning of language, perseverance, feelings of superiority, and a sense of humor for characteristic at this stage.
• 4. The complete acceptance stage- adjustment to the host country reaches the optimum level. There are still some moments of strain, however, the sojourner at this stage generally accepts the customs of the host society without feeling anxiety. Not only are you accepting the food, drinks, habits, but you’re enjoying them.
• There are more emotional needs the researcher must deal with, these needs are the primary group relationships that researchers left behind in their home country; includes love, affection, social belonging, recognition, self-esteem, etc.
• There is a term known as reverse culture shock and that happens when researchers return home after completing their field work and are still vulnerable to another type of culture shock due to having to readjust to their own home country.

Beneficial Aspects:

• There are a variety of benefits which come with cross cultural research. These benefits outweigh its problems and risks.
• Expansion of theoretical generalizability
• Refinement of key concepts
• Increasing the range of variables
• Confounding variables
• Promotion of contextual analysis

In conclusion, cross cultural research generates new concepts, facilitates alternative methodology, and provides a broader theoretical perspective on the phenomena under investigation even in one’s own society.