• Why
  • The source provided valuable insights as to the urgency of rewriting the role of Missions in the colonization of Indians. The article talks about how history texts glorify the colonizers rather than critically present the colonial experience of the previously free Indian people. The source also illustrated through the example of a 4^th grader who was so shocked to see that Indians are still living (when she met the author) how negatively indoctrinated students are.
• Reading Notes
  • The indigenous peoples of California did most of the work for the construction of Missions
  • Mission Unit is all too often a lesson in imperialism, racism, and Manifest Destiny rather than actually educational or a jumping-off point for critical thinking or accurate history.
  • Mission subjects taught students that Indians were subjugated and also benefited from the colonization
  • Most textbooks don’t give visibility to modern California Indians

Harrington, The Lesser-told Story of the California Missions

• Who
  • Harrington is an author on WIRED
• What
  • The source is an online article which talks about the less-known facts about California Missions. It particularly centers on the role of Saint Junipero Serra during the missionization
• When
  • The article was published in 2016
• Where
  • Since it is an online article, the source has a global circulation. In terms of geographical focus, it targets the state of California and other places where there are Missions
• Why
  • The article centers on the books published by Elias Castillo and the views of the curators of a California Mission. The former explained how terrorizing the treatment of Serra of the Indians was while the latter are defending the friar. Castillo presented accounts of Serra sanctioning and even mandating the inhumae treatment of the Indians. The article presents compelling views on how institutions acted consciously to marginalize Indians from the writings of history. While efforts have been made to revise the educational curriculum and reflect the subjugation of the Indians, the article argues that the process of giving the recognition and respect that the Indians deserve has still a long way to go. It is just so ironical that the person (Serra) who supervised the confinement of Indians into concentration camps, which exposed them to malnutrition and various diseases and obliterated their culture, was canonized as a saint and even described by Pope Francis as someone who “defend [ed] the dignity of the native community, to protect it protect it form to those who had mistreated and abused it”. With the historical trauma still being experienced by the Indians, it is worth asking: Who are being referred to by Pope Francis as those who “mistreated and abused” the native community and against which Serra exerted his energy to protect the native community?
• Reading Notes
  • Junipero Serra is far from how Pope Francis described him during his canonization according to author Elias Castillo
  • Serra was single-minded in his goal—to save souls no matter how early Native Americans died
  • The condition within the conventos was conducive to the spread of diseases
  • Indians experienced severe malnutrition, as evidenced by the result of bone comparison
  • To replenish the workforce because of deaths, friars went the distance in search of Native Americans who would work on their ranches and farms
  • Some Indians were able to escaped and some even waged rebellions
  • Escapees received harsh penalties
  • A letter debunked the widely held belief that Serra never ordered the whipping of Native Americans
  • He celebrated the deaths of Indians as this means more soul go to heaven
  • During Mexican rule, a significant number of Native Americans were exterminated because they were seen as criminals (forced to steal food because of limited means and opportunities).
  • Castillo criticized the state curriculum on how the Missions and its role are being taught
  • Native Americans still experienced historical trauma.

Asimov, Stanford to Remove References to Junipero Serra over Treatment of Tribes

• Who
  • The author is a San Francisco Chronicle correspondent for public and private universities as well as community colleges.
• What
  • The source is an online article published by the San Francisco Chronicle. It features the decision of Stanford to distant itself from Father Junipero Serra, a Franciscan priest who was involved in the inhumane treatment of Native Americans during the missionization period
• When
  • The online article was published on September 14, 2018
• Where
  • The article was published online and therefore has global circulation. It can be argued, however, that the geographical focus of the article includes states and counties as well as institutions which currently have an association with Serra and other villains in history.
• Why
  • The article is relevant as it features a premier university taking a strong stance against those who perpetrated abuses against Native Americans. The acts of Stanford and other universities could remind the public how serious a topic the marginalization of Native Americans is as well as the need to correct the errors of the past. Severing the association with history’s villains is a welcome development as it shows that academic institutions have already recognized the existing historical justice. It can lead to the deeper realization that institutions named after Serra and others as well as the continued existence of colonial establishments add further injury and insult to the Native Americans.
• Reading Notes
  • Stanford removed references to Serra in its prominent establishments although it retained the name of the street named after the friar for reason that this could no longer give Serra his position in history
  • The university is one of the many academic institutions to distance itself from association with villains in history such as slaveholders and conquerors. UC Berkeley School of Law also removed reference to the term “Boalt”, after John Boalt, because of the lead role played by the person in the passage of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.
  • The institution recognized the inhumane treatment of Indians for the various purposes of the Spaniards, led by Serra.

Menchaca, Ch.5, The Settlement of California and the Twilight of the Spanish Period

• Who
  • The author is a professor at the University of Texas at Austin and has already published books and scholarly articles on social anthropology, ethnicity, gender, oral traditions, Chicano studies and US/Mexican culture.
• What
  • The source is chapter from a book entitled Recovering History, Constructing the Race: The Indian, Black and White Roots of Mexican Americans. The chapter talks about the expansion of the Spanish colonization to California and the consequent incorporations of indigenous groups within the mission system. Within this mission system, racial diversity can be recognized. The Mexicans in the interior Mexico were revolting while the Spaniards were entrenching themselves in power in the Southwest. The ideological confrontation eventually culminated in the 1821 Mexican War of Independence. The colonial government, in its effort to maintain power, had enacted laws aimed at incorporating the indigenous people particularly the Native Americans.
• When
  • The book was published 2001 but the content covers the period from 18^th century
• Where
  • The book was published in the US but the geographical focus can be argued as covering also Mexico
• Why
  • The chapter presents how strategically important California was for Spain in its hold of the New World. Russia was advancing south and Britain was also expanding. The need to populate Californian was prompted by these threats of foreign intrusion. Non-Indians and Indians were recruited to populate the territory. However, this task was proven to be difficult as there were resistance from the indigenous people along the way such as in the Yuma Crossing. When the migrating people arrived at their destinations, Spaniards also built Missions in order to house the population. Because of injustices, the subjugated people were beginning to mistrust the government. In order to avert possible rebellion, the government passed various reforms, the most important and surprising of which is the 1812 Law of Cadiz which eliminated racial equality. However, despite these liberal reforms, the anti-colonial sentiments had still grown and culminated in the Mexican War of Independence.
• Reading Notes
  • Colonization of California was prompted by fear of Russia and England
  • The establishment of Missions in California was of strategic importance for the colonial government
  • Jose de Galvez, the Spanish official in charge with putting the situation under control, had solicited the assistance of Fray Junipero Serra, who supervised the construction of various Missions
  • Land routes were also established through the Yuma Crossing, although the task was not easy as Spaniards faced hostile Indians along the way
  • The party brought by Captain Moncada also brought the first non-Indian women in Alta California
  • Yuma revolts were triggered by inter-ethnic conflicts
  • The revolts at the Mission Purisima Concepcion and San Pedro y San Pablo were due to territorial demarcation
  • The participation of Chief Palma in the revolts after a promise by the colonial government on building his mission was not fulfilled further angered Spain.
  • The mission system lasted until 1834; nearly half a million Indians were baptized in California
  • Conversion to Christianity by the Indians had not been without resistance. Because of news of Indian women being raped and households ransacked by colonial soldiers, the native population lost trust of the Spaniards
  • Missions serve as resettlements areas and military concentrations as well because of the poor living conditions within these places
  • Racial inequality in Mexico was so glaring; peninsulares had greater privileges
  • The Catholic Church also discriminated against the creoles; limited admission to priesthood
  • Economic reforms undertaken to address the unrest only benefitted the elite creoles
  • The liberal reforms implemented by Spain in Mexico were not due to pure concern over the population but as means to stabilize by the government amidst the various political changes elsewhere. Through such reforms, the colonial government hoped to avert any rebellion
  • Reforms:
    • Indians in 1810 were released from paying tributes to the crown and to the local government
    • 1811, Indians were allowed to any crop they choose, enter any profession, and transact business with anyone they want
    • Abolition of racial discrimination in craft guilds
    • Passage of 1812 Law of Cadiz which effectively abolished racial inequality
  • Despite these reforms, the colonial government and the church failed to stop the brewing revolution and culminated in the Mexican War of Independence.