• Why
  • The chapter effectively denied one of the myths of European conquest of the New World. In colonial historiography, it is often stated that the prowess of the Spanish forces were beyond measure as they were able to prevail despite being outnumbered. Missing in these chronicles is the role played by natives and African slaves. Spaniards were able to defeat the natives because of the enlistment of these warriors. Illustrative of this is how the Spaniards were able to capitalize on the political ambitions of the warring people of Mexica and Tlaxcala. The latter was made the native allies by the Spaniards. African slaves likewise played a significant role and some of them, in particular Juan Valiente, even held esteemed military positions. As the personal history of Valiente would suggest, it appeared that joining the conquest is one of the effective means on getting freedom. Moreover, the irony of the conquerors being supported by the conquered people was also manifested in conquest festivals. At one point, a Cortes-led group was dominantly composed of native allies and Africans and was greeted by an overwhelmingly native people. The chapter, therefore, provided compelling arguments against the myth of European conquest of the New World. Inasmuch as chroniclers overemphasized the military prowess of the conquistadores, the role of natives and Africans were marginalized most arguably because this could alleviate the prestige of white conquest. They are indeed the invisible warriors.
• Reading Notes
  • Spaniards constantly outnumbered by native enemies and by their native allies
  • “Invisible warriors” are not just the native allies but also African slaves (reason why Spaniards prevail despite being outnumbered)
  • Second letter of Alvarado to Cortes is proof that the forces were supported by native allies (250 to 5,000-6,000)
  • Spaniards exploited local conflicts (allied with Tlaxcala)
  • Two context:
    • Tlaxcalans, like the Spaniards and Mexicalas, are ambitious
    • Spanish actions elsewehere
  • Inca civil war is the most obvious example of how Spaniards forged alliance with the natives
  • Spaniards lumped all native groups as “Indians” but it was unclear whether there was racial solidarity among the native groups.
  • Unclear whether there was Maya ethnic solidarity in the 16^th century
    • Thought; The same can be said of the archipelagic Philippines. The lack of centralization allowed the Spaniards to immediately subjugate tribes and capture territories
  • Native women also played a role in the conquest as cook, lovers, etc.
    • Thought: the Spaniards had eroded the high regard for women of the natives
  • o Conquest festivals in Mexico: Cortes led a group dominated by natives and the people joining the celebration were most natives
  • o Africans were marginalized in the writing of the history of the conquest because of their subordinated status
  • o The case of Juan Valiente
    • African slave who was able to free himself and became a conquistadores for four years

Casta Paintings (1785),” in Mexican History: A Primary Source Reader

,

• Who
  • No author was mentioned in the text
• What
  • The source is a secondary source discussing the development of Casta paintings during the 18^th In particular, the source discussed the two works of Francisco Clapera, a Spaniard who travelled to Peru and Mexico and later, taught at the Royal Academy of San Carlos.
• When
  • The text likewise did not include details of when was it published but the subject of the text is 18^th century, when Casta paintings surfaced.
• Where
  • The geographical focus of the source is Mexico and other territories in the New World where inter-racial marriages occurred.
• Why
  • The source implies the power of family as a social unit to further the process of colonization. It can be implied that the text is arguing that the inter-marriage of the natives with Europeans formalizes the imposition of one culture upon another. The birth of the so-called creoles embodies this cultural mixing. It must be recalled that in Chapter 3 of the book of Restall, it was mentioned that native women also served a significant although subjugated role during the conquest (as cook, lovers and mothers). These subjugated roles can be inferred as the reason why in Casta paintings, women appears to have a lower status. In the works of Clapera, both women personalities were depicted in their motherly image and role. An interesting aspect of Casta paintings is that the personalities appearing therein are labelled. It can be implied that this is a way for the Europeans to maintain their prestige over the natives and even over their children. Moreover, the paintings also exemplify the dilemma of the creoles: their inferiority to the peninsulares on the one hand and their access to the natural wealth of their place of birth on the other.
• Reading Notes
  • Casta paintings depict inter-cultural mixing
  • The personalities are labelled
    • Question: is this imposition of hierarchy?
  • Francisco Clapera is an example of Casta painter
    • He is a Spaniard who travelled to Mexico and Peru and later taught in the Royal Academy of San Carlos
  • Casta paintings exemplify the dilemma of the creoles—inferiority and access to rich natural resources of their place of birth.